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Sabtu, 27 November 2010

KEDUDUKAN NILAI

oleh : Mochamad Ak Doni
 
Pendahuluan
Nilai merupakan suatu hal yang abstrak dan sulit ketika diungkapkan dengan kata-kata. Dalam berbagai literatur yang membahas filsafat nilai, seringkali mengalami kesulitan untuk mendapatkan gambaran konkrit bentuk nilai. Namun ketika usaha mendiskripsikan nilai dikaitkan dengan fakta empiris akan mendapat kemudahan untuk menangkap nilai.
Pada perkembangannya pembahasan tentang nilai mendapatkan pendamping keilmuan yang khusus mempelajari hakikat nilai, yaitu aksiologi (lebih dikenal filsafat nilai). Filsafat nilai yang bertujuan mengurai tentang hakikat nilai, melakukan eksplorasi keilmuan khusus lainnya yang berkaitan dengan nilai. Seperti, ekonomi, estetika, etika, filsafat agama, dan epistemologi. Yang mana epistemologi lebih terkait dengan masalah kebenaran, etika bersangkutan dengan masalah kebaikan (dalam arti kesusilaan), dan estetika bersangkutan dengan masalah keindahan.
Dari orientasi sekilas tentang perkembangan pembahasan nilai diatas menjadi sangat layak untuk mengetahui kedudukan nilai diantara kehidupan yang berjalan. Karena dengan mengetahui kedudukan nilai akan membantu kita dalam memahami nilai. Sehingga pemakalah mencoba sedikit melacak kedudukan nilai dengan tiga pemetaan; (1)manusia dengan nilai, (2)kebudayaan dengan nilai, (3)fakta dengan nilai.

Manusia – Nilai
Membahas tentang manusia akan membutuhkan waktu yang sangat lama, bahkan sampai matipun pembahasan manusia belum pasti tuntas. Kompleksitas manusia menjadikan kerumitan tersendiri dalam memahami manusia. Sehingga kefokusan pembahasan tetang manusia kali ini lebih pada keterkaitannya dengan nilai.
Manusia dalam merespon sekitarnya terdapat banyak konsepsi dan tindakan. Hal ini menyesuaikan dengan keadaan manusia yang menjadi faktor berpengaruh dalam pembentukan konsep atau memutuskan tindakan. Pada level lebih jauh lagi manusia akan menciptakan kaidah-kaidah kehidupan yang pada proses interaksi dengan sesama manusia akan menjadi kaidah bersama.
Moral dan etika selalu melekat pada pembahasan tentang mansia. Dua hal ini terkait langsung dengan tindak manusia. Moral dan etika menjadi sebuah dasar manusia bertindak. Sehingga ada konsekuensi yang muncul dengan penyebutan “manusia yang baik” (punya moral dan etika). Pemberian sebutan ini adalah bagian dari perwujudan nilai melalui pemberian nilai dari manusia yang satu kepada manusia lainya. Kata “baik” menjadi sebuah penghargaan yang diberikan karena kehidupan manusia yang mempunyai moral dan bertindak etis.
Moral dan etika yang dijadikan sebagai pagar pembatas antara wilayah baik dan buruk. Keberadaan ini ketika dikaitkan dengan sifat sosial manusia, akan mewujudkan regenerasi. Dengan kemampuan manusia berbahasa dan mewariskan nilai luhur ini akan mebentuk sebuah kebiasaan yang pada akhirnya menjadi kebudayaan.

Kebudayaan – Nilai
Lahirnya kebudayaan bagaikan sebuah proses metamorfosis dari kepompong yang melahirkan ulat kemudian bersayap menjadi kupu-kupu. Dari suatu keadaan yang lemah dalam keterkungkungan menjadi bergerak dengan bebas untuk menumbuhkan bunga-bunga kemajuan hidup manusia.
Lebih kompleks kebudayaan ada dengan berbagai yang menyempurnakan didalamnya, seperti bahasa, moral, etika, yang berasal dari konsensus kelompok masyarakat. Melalui bahasa manusia bisa berkomunikasi dengan sesamanya, dilanjutkan dengan penyesuaian antar manusia dalam memahami moral dan etika bersama. Kesepakatan antar manusia ini menjadi titik penting terbentuknya kebudayaan. Seperti pembahasan menngenai manusia dan nilai, kedudukan nilai dalam kebudayaan juga nampak, karena moral dan etika dalam kebudayaan adalah bagian dari nilai. Hai ini dapat dibuktikan melalui fakta empiris di sekitar kita.

Fakta – Nilai
Fakta merupakan kejadian nyata yang timbul dari serangkaian aktivitas manusia. Interaksi manusia dengan lingkungan menghasilkan fakta. Begitu juga interaksi manusia dengan manusia bisa menjadi fakta.
Dalam memahami fakta untuk mengetahui kedudukan nilai didalamnya, lebih mudah dalam mendiskripsikan dengan sebuah kalimat “gunung merapi meletus menyebabkan perekonomian Yogyakarta memburuk”. Kalimat tersebut menyebutkan sebuah fakta yang terjadi belakangan ini, dan di dalam fakta tersebut terdapat nilai buruk dalam bidang perekonomian. Begitu juga dengan berbagai fakta lainnya, meskipun beragam sudut pandang tetapi selalu bermuatan nilai.

Kesimpulan
Manusia sebagai pelaku nilai, pemeberi nilai ataupun diberi. Atau dengan kata lain manusia menjadi subyek sekaligus obyek atas nilai. Manusia dalam menjalani kehidupannya yang dengan senantiasa menjunjung nilai luhur menghasilkan sebuah kaidah-kaidah kehidupan yang menjadi pedoman, seperti moral dan etika.
Dan dalam perkembangannya kebutuhan manusia beinteraksi dengan bermula bahasa yang disepakati untuk berkomunikasi menjalar pada kesepakatan tentang ide-ide pedoman hidup. Sehingga pada perkembangannya fakta yang terjadi selalu bermuatan nilai meski berbagai sudut pandang cara menaggapinya.

Kamis, 14 Oktober 2010

tes

Rabu, 07 Juli 2010

pictures in wisata arek AF

no comment.......(diriku sendiri.com)

yok....abis renang rujakan.....
titin:"hmmm arek2 iki blm selesai ngiris timus sudah abis duluan wah...wah...aq ga kebagian"
alfi:"sabar neng....soalnya aq juga ikut habisin whiiiihiiiihiii"
ubed:"enak tenan"
smile plisss
jeng uget-uget:"owh wajahq kenapa ini......"
fatir: "apapun yg terjadi aq ttp syang padamu jeng".....
naning+rosi: " hmmm senyumq sangat mempesona"

liat ni...pose kita....
prof+yayan:"capek rek awakku remek makanya nongkrong gini...hoho,"
jeng uget-uget:"podowae cak perasane aq gak pegel ngunu ta"

brrrrr
Serunya......dingin rek ha....3x lihatlah diriku bisa mengambang diatas air tanpa Ban keren kan guwe

Jumat, 02 Juli 2010

REKREASI PERDANA AREK LIMAPAN


dalam angka membangun tali persaudaraan arek-arek AF 2008 mengadakan acara kumpul n tour bareng ke L.A city sambil silaturrahmi ke rumah sahabat kita yang ada di sana.
hari senin tanggal 05 Juli 2010.....
ini acara perdana kita yang akan mengawali rekatnya hubungan persahabatan antara anak AF 2008, SEMOGA acara ini berjalan dengan lancar amin...
dan terus dapat dilanjutkan per semester okey.....

Kamis, 24 Juni 2010

G.W.F. Hegel

Idealist System
The Painter and His Picture
 The reality is a teleological process through contradictions and crises. A painter paints a picture. What’s happen here? Through this work he knows himself. The work is an alienation of his inner life. So, the reality is both the spirit (painter) and the nature (picture). Nature is the externalization of the inner life of the spirit. It is the alienated spirit (the picture is also the alienated mind of the painter).
The Dialectics
 The dialectics is a three-steps-dynamic of all thing. It is called thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
 We can understand it as a process in which the mind alienated itself into the outer world. This alienation of mind is then solved through reconciliation of the world and its producer or the mind.
 Note: In this reconciliation Hegel follows Schelling’s Philosophy of Identity (Schelling thinks that there is no difference between consciousness and nature)
Aufhebung
 The synthesis is a process of reconciliation through Aufhebung, i.e:

 1. To receive some elements of thesis and antithesis
 2. To eliminate the other elements
 3. To lift up into a higher level (aufgehoben)

 Synthesis is not mere combination, but a qualitative new form. (Like Child is a synthetical form of father and mother)
Das Absolute
 Hegel’s philosophical standpoint is “das Absolute” or the absolute. He takes this starting point from Schelling. The absolute has no difference in itself between subject and object. It is the whole reality that include subject and object.
 But it develops in time and space.
The Big Three
 The Idea (internal)
 The Nature (external)
 The Spirit (internal-external)
Three Steps of Development of Reality [or the absolute]
 The absolute develops in three steps like the development of human person:
 1. The absolute in itself [das Absolute an sich] or the Idea – comparable with the child that has not yet recognized himself
 2. The absolute for itself [das Absolute fuer sich] or the nature – comparable with the adult that knows the world outside but still searches himself
 3. The absolute for and in itself [das Abasolute an und fuer sich] or the spirit – comparable with an old man that knows himself through the world
The Absolute as Idea (subjective moment)
 Hegel’s system begins with “logic”. Logic is the subjective moment of the absolute or idea. There are three moments here:
 1. Being (Sein) - external
 2. Essence (Wesen) – internal
 3. Concept (Begriff) – external-internal
The Absolute as Nature (objective moment)
 The second part of Hegel’s System is Philosophy of Nature
 1. Physics - material
 2. Mechanics - movement
 3. Organics - life

The Absolute as Spirit (absolute moment)
 The third and final part of Hegel’s System is Philosophy of Spirit
 1. Subjective spirit: Phenomenology of Spirit
 2. Objective spirit: Philosophy of Right
 3. Absolute Spirit: Art, Religion and Philosophy
An Example: Hegel’s Philosophy of Right
 The objective spirit consists in three steps or aspects, i.e:
 1. Abstract Right: property right
 2. Morality: intention, guilt
 3. Ethical Life (Sittlichkeit), that consists of three moments:
 A. Family : natural substance (more than sex)
 B. Civil Society: contract and individualism
 C. State: more than economics or contract
Sittlicher Staat
 Hegel’s State is a sacral and religious state. The citizens obey the law without alienation, i.e. freely, because there is reconciliation between abstract right (thesis) and morality (antithesis) in form of ethical life of the state (synthesis).
The Three Moment is Synchronic
 We must regard the three moment of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right not as chronological chain or diachronic, but as synchronic: They are aspects of the same political reality, i.e.: the capitalist state. The modern state can be seen as [1] a collection of families; [2] as a civil society; or as [3] liberal state.

Immanuel Kant

Historical Context
 Kant lived during the age of enlightenment
 The spirit of enlightenment (Aufklaerung):
 1. Universalism: The thinker tried to reflect the cultural development of science and economics as new era in humanity
 2. Struggle against religious worldview: Religion was seen as superstition that must be clarified by an scientific explanation of the reality.
 3. The alternative Worldviews: a. Deism (England); b. Materialism (French). In Germany the enlightenment was not radical and tended to a synthesis of all contrary streams.

The Project of Kant’s Philosophy
 Kant’s philosophical project can be formulated in three questions:
 1. What can I know? The Answer is the content of “Critique of pure Reason” [Kritik der reinen Vernunft]
 2. What should I do? The Answer is the content of “Critique of practical Reason” [Kritik der praktischen Vernunft]
 3. What can I hope? The Answer is the content of “Critique of Judgment” [Kritik der Urteilkraft]
Kant’s Approach to the Problem of Knowledge - Criticism
 Kant’s Philosophy is called “criticism”. It can be defined as a philosophy that is critical against the dogmatism. Dogmatism is a form of knowledge that is achieved without researching first the condition of possibility [die Bedingung der Moeglichkeit] of our knowledge capacity. E.g. metaphysics. Contrary to it the criticism is a form of knowledge that is achieved, after we question first the limits of our capacity to know the reality.

Proceduralism
 For Kant it is more interesting to know the form of our knowledge than the content of our knowledge. Therefore he focused his research on the procedure by which we get our knowledge of reality. So, his epistemology is a research on the validity of our knowledge.
 He wanted to know, if the mathematics, physics and metaphysics are valid as science or not.
 Valid as science means that they can give us a reliable knowledge that has empirical evidence.
The Main Problem of “Kritik der reinen Vernunft”
 Kant asks, how the synthetical judgment like “all events in the world has a cause” is possible.
 “all events in the world” = subject of the sentence
 “has a cause” = predicate of the sentence
 The predicate is not the analytical result of the subject, but gives us a new information (so, it is synthetic, and not analytic)
 However all the sentence is a priori (a priori synthetic): We needn’t to find the causes of all events in order to justify the truth of his sentence.
 So, Kant’s question is: How is the a priori synthetical judgment in Physics possible?

Three Levels of Knowledge
 Kant answers the question in that he sketches the process of our knowing activity as three levels:
 1. Transcendental Aesthetics (Knowledge on the sensuous level)
 2. Transcendental Analytics (Knowledge on the intellectual level)
 3. Transcendental Dialectics (Knowledge on the rational level)

The Phenomenal and Noumenal
 According to Kant we don’t know the thing in itself (das Ding an sich). We know only the appearance of the table, for example, but the table in itself, i.e. the essential table, cannot be known.
 The table that we see is the combination between the result of our sensuous activity and the appearance of the object that is caused by “das Ding an sich” beyond the empirical reality.
 The table lies on the phenomenal field of reality
 The table in itself lies on the noumenal field of reality
I. On the sensuous level (Sinnlichkeit)

 On this level our knowledge on the table is a combination between a priori and a posteriori elements:
 A priori on the side of knowing subject: our senses have a priori of space and time
 A posteriori on the side of known object: the appearance of the table is chaotic without the a priori of the subjective side of knowledge.
 The a priori can be illustrated as glasses. Without then the reality outside seems blur.
 On this level Kant justifies Mathematics as science, because space and time are our a priori
Space as a priori
 “Space is not an empirical concept…the representation of space cannot be borrowed through experience from relations of external phenomena, but, on the contrary, this external experience becomes possible only by means of the representation of space” (Kant, Chritique of Pure Reason, in: Baird, p. 492)
Time as internal sense
 “Time is nothing but the form of the internal sense, that is, of our intuition of ourselves, and of our internal state…Time ist the formal condition, a prioru, of all phenomena whatsoever…”
II.The Intellectual Level (or Verstand)
 On this level our mind combines two or more separated phenomena. E.g. “The table is damage because of fire”
 How it combines “table” and “fire”? According to Kant our mind has a priori categories (12 categories). One of them is “causality”. So, this category constructs two or more separated phenomena in an intellectual order.
 Then we know why the table is damage, i.e. because of fire.
 On this level Kant justifies the validity of physics as science, because the causality that is central on the physics is the a priori category of our mind.
Verstand or Understanding
 “All judgements therefore are functions of unity among our representations, the knowledge of an object being brought about, not by an immediate representation, but by a higher one, comprehending , comprehending this and several others, so that many possible cognitions are collected into one.”
III.The Rational Level (or Vernunft)
 On this level our mind produces argument by combining the statements of our intellect.
 The a priori of our mind is the three ideas of pure reason, i.e. “world”, “soul” and “God”.
 The ideas are not objects of knowledge, but principles in our mind that guarantee the unity of events in the physical world (world), the psychical world (soul) and in the all thing (God). They are also not constitutive, but regulative.
Is the metaphysics possible as science?
 Kant answered with a no. Why? The ideas of God, world and soul are not object of knowledge, but only unifying principles of our mind. They are not empirical reality, but transcendental principles by which we unify the physical and psychical processes in a rational order.
 Also, the metaphysics is a form of knowledge that doesn’t reflect the reality outside our mind. In the metaphysics our mind reflects itself.
 Although the metaphysics is not valid as science, it is according to Kant a possible form of knowledge. It is not a science, but a form of knowledge.
 The metaphysical claims of God, world and soul have not ground in the empirical world. They go beyond the limits of our reason.

Karl Marx and Materialism

Feuerbach’s Materialism
 The German idealists suppose that nature can be known through our consciousness. But how does the consciousness come into being? Where does it originate?
 Freuerbach finds the answer in that the consciousness originates in that we differ ourselves from nature. So, nature is the fundamental of consciousness. What so called “Idea” or “Spirit” depends on nature, i.e. material process.
God as Projection
 Feuerbach applied Hegel’s theory of alienation in the phenomenon of religion. Man thinks on his own characteristics, e.g. that he is just, good or powerful. These characteristics are idealized so that he doesn’t find them no more as his own characteristics. They are projected outside his mind as objective realities. Then he views them as the characteristics of God. But in fact they are the essences of man. Here the theology is actually an anthropology. In the theology man talks about his own essences, i.e. his characteristics in idealized form.
Marx and Feuerbach
 Marx agreed with Feuerbach that religion is a form of alienation (or projection). But he disagrees with all materialists before him, because their doctrines are contemplative and not practical.
 The young Marx adopted the materialism of Feuerbach, but his starting point was different: For him matter is not ‘nature’, but ‘social labor’ (instrumental action).
Marx and Hegel
 Marx adopted Hegel’s dialectic as his method. But he criticizes Hegel that the Hegelian synthesis occurs only in Hegel’ mind. It doesn’t exist in the empirical or concrete social reality. Instead of synthesis there are contradictions in the capitalist society, i.e. between the bourgeois and working classes.
 He wanted to build ‘a philosophy with practical intention’, i.e. a though that transforms the social reality.
11th Theses on Feuerbach
 “Die Philosophen haben die Welt nur verschieden interpretiert, es koemmt darauf an, sie zu veraendern” [The philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways. But the problem is how to change the world]
Social Labor and Alienation
 Labor expresses that man is a social being, because he expresses and realizes him self through his products. This deep anthropological meaning of labor is collapse in the capitalist society. The laborer is alienated from his own products, because he sells his labor (Lohnarbeit = paid labor) to the factory owner.
 The forces of his body is objectified as a thing that can be counted and sold. So, the labor is alienated from its producer.
Threefold Alienation
 1. The laborer are alienated from their own products, because these products are no more theirs.
 2. They are alienated from themselves, because they lose their freedom
 3. They are also alienated each other and from the capitalists. So, the social solidarity is broken.
Root of Alienation: Private Property
 Contrary to Hegel, Marx thinks that not the spirit (der Geist), but the laborer is alienated in history. Agree with Hegel he says that the cause of this alienation is not the individual, but something beyond the individuals, i.e. the structure of capitalist society that is based on private property. This private property is the base of the dichotomy between the capitalist class and the working class.
 Marx convinced that the alienation is solved through the elimination of the private property.
Base-Superstructure Analysis
 Marx saw the society as a huge structure that consists of two parts:
 1. The base (Unterbau), i.e. economics: the productive forces ( technology) and the relations of production (power relation)
 2. The superstructure (Ueberbau), i.e. consciousness: law, religion, ideology, politics etc.
 The base determines the superstructure. So, the change of the economic base determines necessarily the change of the ideological superstructure.
How does the revolution happen?
 1. The contradictions in the economic base of the capitalist society (between the conservative relation of production and the progressive force of production) become intense. The revolution explodes through this tension. The private property is eliminated by the working/ proletariat class
 2. The change in the base transforms the whole ideological superstructure.